White's Handbook of Chlorination and Alternative Disinfectants
von: Unknown
Wiley, 2010
ISBN: 9780470561324
Sprache: Englisch
1060 Seiten, Download: 13097 KB
Format: PDF, auch als Online-Lesen
geeignet für:
| WHITE’S HANDBOOK OF CHLORINATION AND ALTERNATIVE DISINFECTANTS | 3 | ||
| CONTENTS | 9 | ||
| Preface | 29 | ||
| Authors | 31 | ||
| List of Contributors and Reviewers | 33 | ||
| List of Abbreviations | 35 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 41 | ||
| 1 Chlorine: History, Manufacture, Properties, Hazards, and Uses | 43 | ||
| Historical Background | 43 | ||
| Elemental Chlorine | 43 | ||
| Chlorine Gas | 43 | ||
| Chlorine Liquid | 44 | ||
| Manufacture of Chlorine | 44 | ||
| History | 44 | ||
| Electrolytic Processes | 45 | ||
| Electrolytic Cell Development | 46 | ||
| The Ideal Electrochemical Cell | 46 | ||
| Process Developments | 47 | ||
| Membrane Cell | 47 | ||
| Diaphragm Cells | 50 | ||
| Mercury Cells | 53 | ||
| Process Diagram for a Typical Chlor-Alkali Plant | 57 | ||
| Other Chlorine Manufacturing Processes | 60 | ||
| Salt Process | 60 | ||
| HCl Oxidation Processes | 60 | ||
| Electrolysis of Hydrochloric Acid Solutions | 62 | ||
| Impurities in the Manufacture of Chlorine | 62 | ||
| Historical Background | 62 | ||
| Consequences of Impurities | 64 | ||
| Nitrogen Trichloride in Liquid Chlorine | 65 | ||
| Silica Contamination | 66 | ||
| Physical and Chemical Properties of Chlorine | 66 | ||
| General | 66 | ||
| Critical Properties | 66 | ||
| Compressibility Coefficient | 67 | ||
| Volume–Temperature Relationship | 68 | ||
| Density of Chlorine Vapor | 69 | ||
| Density of Liquid Chlorine | 69 | ||
| Viscosity of Chlorine | 69 | ||
| Latent Heat of Vaporization | 69 | ||
| Vapor Pressure | 69 | ||
| Specific Heat | 69 | ||
| Solubility of Chlorine Gas in Water | 69 | ||
| Solubility of Liquid Chlorine in Water | 70 | ||
| Chemical Reactions | 71 | ||
| Hazards from Chlorine Vapor and Liquid | 72 | ||
| Toxic Effects | 72 | ||
| First Aid | 73 | ||
| Physiological Response | 74 | ||
| Intentional Release | 74 | ||
| Chlorine Leaks | 75 | ||
| Definitions | 75 | ||
| Fire and Building Codes | 76 | ||
| Characteristics of a Major Liquid Chlorine Release | 76 | ||
| Calculating Chlorine Leak Rates | 77 | ||
| Liquid Release | 77 | ||
| Vapor Release | 77 | ||
| Tanker Truck Leak during Unloading | 78 | ||
| Guillotine Break in a Pipeline: Ton Container Supply | 78 | ||
| A Major Leak from PVC Header Failure | 80 | ||
| Ton Container Flexible Connection Failure | 81 | ||
| Fusible Plug Failure from Corrosion | 81 | ||
| Summary | 83 | ||
| USEPA Risk Management Programs (RMPs) | 83 | ||
| OSHA Process Safety Management (PSM) Regulations | 87 | ||
| Worst-Case and Alternative Release Analyses | 88 | ||
| Chlorine Transport Accidents | 89 | ||
| Railroad Transportation | 89 | ||
| Highway Transportation | 93 | ||
| Notable Consumer Accidents | 94 | ||
| General | 94 | ||
| A Fatal 1-Ton Container Leak | 95 | ||
| A Leak from Four 1-Ton Containers | 96 | ||
| A Leak from a Buried Chlorine Pipe | 96 | ||
| A 14,000-lb Liquid Leak | 97 | ||
| A Tank Car Leak at a Chlorine Packager | 99 | ||
| Brush Fire | 101 | ||
| Frequency and Magnitude of Chlorine Leaks | 101 | ||
| Production and Uses of Chlorine | 104 | ||
| Annual Production | 104 | ||
| End Uses of Chlorine | 104 | ||
| Help in Chlorine Emergencies | 106 | ||
| References | 107 | ||
| 2 Chemistry of Aqueous Chlorine | 110 | ||
| Dissolution and Hydrolysis of Chlorine | 110 | ||
| Dissociation of Hypochlorous Acid | 116 | ||
| Effect of pH and Temperature | 116 | ||
| Ionic Strength Effects | 119 | ||
| Chlorine Speciation in Concentrated Solutions | 123 | ||
| Hypochlorite Solutions | 124 | ||
| Oxidation States of Chlorine | 127 | ||
| Free, Combined, and Available Chlorine | 129 | ||
| Chlorine and Nitrogenous Compounds | 133 | ||
| Nitrogenous Compounds in Water and Wastewater | 134 | ||
| Chlorination of Ammonia to Form Chloramines | 136 | ||
| The Breakpoint Reaction | 145 | ||
| The Organic Nitrogen Problem | 158 | ||
| The Chemistry of Chlorine in Seawater | 164 | ||
| Effect of Bromide | 165 | ||
| Ionic Strength Effects | 168 | ||
| Bromamine Formation and Decay | 169 | ||
| Oxidation–Reduction Reactions of Chlorine Compounds | 171 | ||
| Fundamental Considerations | 171 | ||
| Practical Considerations | 175 | ||
| ORP Measurements | 177 | ||
| Practical Applications of ORP Measurements | 181 | ||
| Reactions of Chlorine with Selected Constituents | 183 | ||
| Alkalinity | 184 | ||
| Arsenic | 187 | ||
| Carbon | 187 | ||
| Cyanide | 188 | ||
| Hydrogen Sulfide | 188 | ||
| Iron and Manganese | 189 | ||
| Methane | 190 | ||
| Nitrite | 190 | ||
| Chlorine Demand | 191 | ||
| Germicidal Significance of Chlorine Residuals | 193 | ||
| Mechanisms of Inactivation | 194 | ||
| Hypochlorous Acid | 195 | ||
| Hypochlorite Ion | 196 | ||
| Chloramines | 197 | ||
| References | 203 | ||
| 3 Determination of Chlorine Residuals in Water and Wastewater Treatment | 216 | ||
| Historical Background | 216 | ||
| The Early Years | 216 | ||
| Following Discovery of the Breakpoint Phenomenon | 217 | ||
| Recent Developments | 221 | ||
| General Considerations | 221 | ||
| Colorimetric and Titrimetric Methods | 222 | ||
| Common Interferences | 222 | ||
| Organic Nitrogen Interference | 224 | ||
| Recommendations for Method Selection | 226 | ||
| Detailed Descriptions of Individual Methods | 229 | ||
| Amperometric Titration | 229 | ||
| Principles of Titrator Operation | 230 | ||
| The Single-Indicator-Electrode Titrator | 230 | ||
| The Dual-Indicator-Electrode Titrator | 233 | ||
| Operating Characteristics | 235 | ||
| Chemistry of the Amperometric Method | 236 | ||
| Preparation and Procedures for Titration | 237 | ||
| Precision and Detection Limits | 242 | ||
| Low-Level Amperometric Titrations | 242 | ||
| Free Chlorine Residuals at Short Contact Times | 243 | ||
| Determination of Residual Chlorine in Wastewater Effluents | 244 | ||
| DPD Method | 250 | ||
| DPD Colorimetric Method | 252 | ||
| DPD-FAS Titrimetric Method | 253 | ||
| FACTS (Syringaldazine) Method | 256 | ||
| Iodometric Method I | 257 | ||
| Procedure for Standardizing Chlorine Solutions | 259 | ||
| Iodometric Method II (Wastewater) | 259 | ||
| Iodometric Electrode Method | 260 | ||
| Leuco Crystal Violet (LCV) Method | 261 | ||
| Methyl Orange (MO) Method | 262 | ||
| Orthotolidine Method | 263 | ||
| Interfering Substances | 263 | ||
| OTA Method | 264 | ||
| Drop Dilution Method | 264 | ||
| References | 265 | ||
| 4 Chlorination of Potable Water | 272 | ||
| Microbes in Water Supplies | 272 | ||
| Surface Water and Springs | 272 | ||
| Groundwater | 272 | ||
| Waterborne Diseases | 273 | ||
| Chlorine as a Disinfectant | 274 | ||
| Use as a Biocide | 274 | ||
| Use to Inactivate Protozoa | 277 | ||
| Use as a Virucide | 277 | ||
| Consensus Indicator Organism | 278 | ||
| Disinfection Requirements under (Provisions of the) Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) | 278 | ||
| SWTR | 278 | ||
| Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule (IESWTR) | 280 | ||
| Stage 1 DBPR | 281 | ||
| Long-Term 1 Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule (LT1ESWTR) | 281 | ||
| Long-Term 2 Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule (LT2ESWTR) | 281 | ||
| GWR | 282 | ||
| Disinfection of Drinking Water with Clorine | 282 | ||
| Historical Background | 283 | ||
| Points of Application | 284 | ||
| Types of Chemical | 285 | ||
| DBP | 285 | ||
| Trihalomethanes (THMs) | 285 | ||
| Haloacetic Acids (HAAs) | 286 | ||
| Total Organic Halides (TOX) | 286 | ||
| Bromate | 287 | ||
| Chlorine Demand | 287 | ||
| Chlorination-Dechlorination | 289 | ||
| Disinfection with Chloramines | 290 | ||
| Historical Background | 290 | ||
| The Ammonia-Chlorine Process | 292 | ||
| Basic Chemistry of Ammonia N Reactions with Chlorine | 293 | ||
| Operation of the Chloramination Process | 293 | ||
| Issues of Concern | 295 | ||
| Distribution System | 304 | ||
| Regulatory Compliance for Distribution Systems | 306 | ||
| Regrowth | 306 | ||
| Explanation of Terms Involving Regrowth | 308 | ||
| Factors Influencing Microbial Growth | 311 | ||
| Operation of the Distribution System | 313 | ||
| Monitoring | 314 | ||
| Control of Water Age | 316 | ||
| Secondary Disinfectant Residuals | 317 | ||
| Flushing | 319 | ||
| Treatment Plant Performance Impacts on Distribution System Water Quality | 320 | ||
| Disinfection of New Infrastructure | 320 | ||
| Typical Disinfection Chemicals | 320 | ||
| Disinfectant Feed Systems | 321 | ||
| Disinfection of Water Mains | 322 | ||
| Procedures for Disinfecting Storage Tanks | 323 | ||
| Procedure for Disinfecting Water Treatment Plants | 323 | ||
| Disinfection of New Buildings | 324 | ||
| Procedure for Disinfection of Wells | 325 | ||
| Procedures for Maintaining Disinfection while Inspecting In-Service Water Storage Facilities | 326 | ||
| Other Uses of Chlorine in Water Treatment | 327 | ||
| Tastes and Odors | 327 | ||
| Tastes and Odors from Algae and Actinomycetes | 328 | ||
| Synthetic Sources of Tastes and Odors | 330 | ||
| Taste and Odor of Chlorine | 331 | ||
| Iron and Manganese | 331 | ||
| Oxidation of Iron | 333 | ||
| Oxidation of Manganese | 334 | ||
| Coagulation Aid | 335 | ||
| Filtration Aid | 335 | ||
| Control of Mollusca in Seawater | 337 | ||
| Zebra Mussels | 338 | ||
| Quagga Mussels | 339 | ||
| Aquifer Recharge | 341 | ||
| Hydrogen Sulfide Control | 341 | ||
| Color Removal | 345 | ||
| Desalination | 345 | ||
| Reflecting Pools | 346 | ||
| Restoration of Wells | 346 | ||
| Chlorination in the United Kingdom | 348 | ||
| Chlorination in Germany | 352 | ||
| Treatment Strategies | 352 | ||
| Disinfection of Coagulated Surface Water | 352 | ||
| Disinfection of a Softened Surface Water | 353 | ||
| Treatment and Disinfection of a Groundwater that Contains Iron and Manganese | 353 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 353 | ||
| References | 354 | ||
| 5 Chlorination of Wastewater | 368 | ||
| Introduction | 368 | ||
| History | 368 | ||
| Chlorine Chemistry in Wastewater | 369 | ||
| Odor Control | 371 | ||
| Prechlorination of Wastewater | 372 | ||
| Scrubbing of Foul Air | 375 | ||
| Chlorine and Biological Treatment | 380 | ||
| Trickling Filters | 380 | ||
| BOD Reduction | 381 | ||
| Control of Sludge Bulking | 382 | ||
| Other Uses of Chlorine in Wastewater Treatment | 387 | ||
| Septicity Control | 387 | ||
| Removal of Oils and Grease | 390 | ||
| Removal of Ammonia | 391 | ||
| Industrial Waste Treatment Applications Using Chlorine | 394 | ||
| Free and Combined Cyanides | 394 | ||
| Phenols | 401 | ||
| Textile Wastes | 402 | ||
| Applications to Other Industrial Waste | 403 | ||
| References | 403 | ||
| 6 Disinfection of Wastewater | 405 | ||
| Introduction | 405 | ||
| History | 405 | ||
| The Coliform Standard | 406 | ||
| Viruses | 410 | ||
| Virus Inactivation | 412 | ||
| Methods of Wastewater Disinfection | 418 | ||
| Chemistry of Wastewater Disinfection by Chlorine | 421 | ||
| Reactions with Wastewater Constituents | 421 | ||
| Chlorine Dose and Effluent Quality | 424 | ||
| Chlorination of Nitrified Effluents | 426 | ||
| Formation of DBPs | 432 | ||
| Other Disinfection Considerations | 436 | ||
| Regrowth of Organisms | 436 | ||
| Toxicity of Chlorine Residuals | 437 | ||
| Need for Dechlorination | 438 | ||
| Wastewater Reuse | 439 | ||
| References | 442 | ||
| 7 Chlorine Contact Basin Design | 446 | ||
| Introduction | 446 | ||
| Design Elements | 447 | ||
| Chlorination and Dechlorination Doses | 447 | ||
| Dispersion of Chlorine | 447 | ||
| Mixing Technologies | 448 | ||
| Chlorine Contact Chamber Sizing | 453 | ||
| Wastewater | 455 | ||
| Reuse Water | 455 | ||
| Potable Water | 456 | ||
| No-Tracer Test Design | 458 | ||
| Wet Weather Disinfection for Wastewater | 458 | ||
| Chlorine Contact Basin Construction | 459 | ||
| Disinfection By-products | 459 | ||
| Sampling and Reporting | 459 | ||
| References | 459 | ||
| 8 Chlorine Feed Systems | 460 | ||
| Cylinders | 462 | ||
| Ton Containers | 466 | ||
| Tank Trucks/Tank Cars | 469 | ||
| Storage Tanks | 472 | ||
| Liquid Chlorine Feed | 473 | ||
| Vaporizers | 473 | ||
| Appurtenances | 478 | ||
| Pressure-Reducing Valve | 478 | ||
| Gas Filter | 479 | ||
| Gas Chlorine Feed | 480 | ||
| Chlorine Feeders and Eductors | 484 | ||
| Chlorine Diffusers | 486 | ||
| Pipe and Valve Systems | 487 | ||
| Chlorine Scrubbers | 492 | ||
| Reference | 493 | ||
| 9 Hypochlorination—Sodium Hypochlorite | 494 | ||
| Background and History of Hypochlorites | 494 | ||
| Sodium Hypochlorite | 496 | ||
| Concentration Properties, Feed Calculations, Codes, and Hazards | 497 | ||
| Degradation | 505 | ||
| Estimating the Degradation Rate | 507 | ||
| Concentration Effects | 508 | ||
| Temperature Effects | 510 | ||
| pH Effects | 511 | ||
| UV Light Effects | 512 | ||
| Impurities | 513 | ||
| Suspended Solids | 515 | ||
| Settled Particulates | 515 | ||
| Other Impurities | 516 | ||
| Impact on Treatment Process | 516 | ||
| Sodium Carbonate | 516 | ||
| Sodium Bromate | 517 | ||
| pH and Alkalinity Addition | 517 | ||
| Scaling | 517 | ||
| Chlorate/Perchlorates | 518 | ||
| Recommendations | 518 | ||
| Tank Selection | 519 | ||
| Lined Steel | 521 | ||
| FRP | 522 | ||
| HDPE | 523 | ||
| Titanium | 525 | ||
| Other Tank Materials | 525 | ||
| Level Instrumentation | 525 | ||
| Truck Unloading | 526 | ||
| Top Access | 527 | ||
| Underground Storage Tank (UST) | 527 | ||
| Transfer and Feed Equipment | 528 | ||
| Transfer Pumps | 528 | ||
| Diaphragm Metering Pumps | 528 | ||
| Problems with Vapor Locking | 532 | ||
| Peristaltic Pumps | 535 | ||
| Liquid Dosing Systems | 540 | ||
| Sodium Hypochlorite Piping | 541 | ||
| Thermoplastic Piping (PVC and CPVC) | 543 | ||
| Lined Steel | 545 | ||
| FRP Piping | 546 | ||
| FRP-Armored Piping | 546 | ||
| Titanium | 546 | ||
| HDPE | 547 | ||
| PVDF | 547 | ||
| Polypropylene (PP) | 548 | ||
| Hastelloy | 548 | ||
| Gaskets, Seals, and O-Rings | 548 | ||
| Sodium Hypochlorite Valves | 549 | ||
| Ball Valves | 550 | ||
| Diaphragm Valves | 552 | ||
| Sodium Hypochlorite Facility Layouts | 555 | ||
| Elevation Differences | 555 | ||
| Tank and Pump Bases | 557 | ||
| Access and Clearances | 559 | ||
| Control Panels | 560 | ||
| Calcium Hypochlorite | 560 | ||
| History | 560 | ||
| Manufacturing Process | 562 | ||
| Properties | 563 | ||
| Disinfection | 563 | ||
| Solubility | 564 | ||
| Hazards and Stability | 565 | ||
| Tablet and Briquette Systems | 565 | ||
| Applicable Standards | 566 | ||
| Lithium Hypochlorite | 567 | ||
| References | 568 | ||
| 10 On-Site Sodium Hypochlorite Generation System | 570 | ||
| Historical Background | 570 | ||
| The Beginning | 570 | ||
| Early Experience in the United States | 571 | ||
| Current Interest | 571 | ||
| Raw Material Quality | 572 | ||
| Salt and Brine Systems | 572 | ||
| Impact of Salt Quality and Bromate Formation | 572 | ||
| Seawater Systems | 573 | ||
| On-Site Generation of Sodium Hypochlorite | 573 | ||
| Electrolytic Formation of Sodium Hypochlorite | 573 | ||
| Process Overview | 574 | ||
| System Components | 576 | ||
| Water Softener | 576 | ||
| Brine Saturator Tank | 579 | ||
| Soft-Water Heater | 581 | ||
| Soft-Water Chiller | 582 | ||
| Brine Metering | 584 | ||
| Electrolytic Cell | 584 | ||
| Brine Dilution | 587 | ||
| Rectifier | 588 | ||
| Hydrogen Formation, Separation, and Safety | 588 | ||
| Hydrogen Dilution Blowers | 595 | ||
| Sodium Hypochlorite Storage Tank | 598 | ||
| Sodium Hypochlorite Feed Equipment | 598 | ||
| On-Site Sodium Hypochlorite Generation System Design | 599 | ||
| Equipment Sizing | 599 | ||
| System Redundancy | 600 | ||
| Amount of Sodium Hypochlorite Storage | 601 | ||
| System Layout | 601 | ||
| System Manufacturers | 607 | ||
| ClorTec | 607 | ||
| Klorigen | 608 | ||
| MIOX | 609 | ||
| OSEC | 609 | ||
| Process Solutions, Inc. (PSI) | 610 | ||
| References | 613 | ||
| 11 Dechlorination | 614 | ||
| Introduction | 614 | ||
| History | 614 | ||
| Significance of Chlorine Species | 618 | ||
| Sulfur Dioxide | 619 | ||
| Chemical Properties | 619 | ||
| Dechlorination Chemistry | 621 | ||
| Contactor Design | 622 | ||
| Chemical Dose Calculations | 623 | ||
| Sulfite Compounds | 623 | ||
| Chemical Properties | 623 | ||
| Dechlorination Chemistry | 624 | ||
| Contactor Design | 624 | ||
| Chemical Dose Calculation | 625 | ||
| Other Dechlorination Chemicals | 625 | ||
| Dechlorination Facility Design | 627 | ||
| Design of Gaseous System Sulfur Dioxide | 628 | ||
| Sulfur Dioxide Leak Detectors | 631 | ||
| Liquid System Design for Sulfites | 634 | ||
| References | 635 | ||
| 12 Process Controls for Chlorination and Dechlorination | 636 | ||
| Introduction | 636 | ||
| Background | 638 | ||
| Online Analytical Measurements | 640 | ||
| Amperometry | 640 | ||
| Voltametry | 641 | ||
| Polarography | 641 | ||
| Membrane Cell | 642 | ||
| Potentiometry | 642 | ||
| ORP | 644 | ||
| Colorimetry | 648 | ||
| Online Analyzers for Chlorination | 649 | ||
| Analytical Technology, Inc. | 650 | ||
| Hach | 653 | ||
| Capital Controls | 656 | ||
| GLI International | 661 | ||
| Orion Research, Inc. | 662 | ||
| Wallace & Tiernan | 663 | ||
| Stranco Products | 664 | ||
| Field Comparison of Analyzers | 671 | ||
| How to Select an Online Analyzer | 673 | ||
| Online Process Control Overview | 675 | ||
| Chlorination Process Control | 679 | ||
| Manual Control | 680 | ||
| Flow Pacing | 683 | ||
| Feedback Control | 686 | ||
| Compound Loop Control | 689 | ||
| Dechlorination | 695 | ||
| Flow Pacing | 696 | ||
| Feedback Control | 696 | ||
| Compound Loop Control | 696 | ||
| Zero Residual Control | 697 | ||
| Online Analyzers for Dechlorination | 699 | ||
| Stranco HRR | 699 | ||
| Wallace & Tiernan | 700 | ||
| Capital Controls | 704 | ||
| Blending Chemistry with Process Control | 705 | ||
| Control System O&M | 712 | ||
| Record Keeping and Regulatory Issues | 715 | ||
| References | 718 | ||
| 13 Operation and Maintenance | 720 | ||
| General | 720 | ||
| Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) | 721 | ||
| Maintenance Plan | 722 | ||
| Residual Analyzer Maintenance and Calibration of Residual Analyzer | 723 | ||
| Chlorine Gas Systems | 724 | ||
| Operation | 724 | ||
| Chlorine Gas System Maintenance | 726 | ||
| Chlorine Detection Systems and Emergency Scrubber | 728 | ||
| Sodium Hypochlorite Systems | 729 | ||
| Sodium Hypochlorite System Operation | 729 | ||
| Sodium Hypochlorite System Maintenance | 731 | ||
| Dechlorination Gas Systems | 732 | ||
| Sulfonator Operation | 732 | ||
| Sulfonator Maintenance | 733 | ||
| Dechlorination Liquid Systems | 734 | ||
| Operation of Liquid Dechlorination Systems | 734 | ||
| Liquid Dechlorination Systems Maintenance | 735 | ||
| Operator Training and Safety | 735 | ||
| Storage Systems | 735 | ||
| Small (100- and 150-lb) Gas Cylinders | 735 | ||
| Ton Containers | 736 | ||
| Rail Cars | 737 | ||
| Liquid Chemical Storage | 738 | ||
| Regulatory Requirements | 739 | ||
| Risk Management Plan | 739 | ||
| SDWA and State Testing and Reporting Requirements | 740 | ||
| Wastewater Chlorine Use Reporting Requirements for Wastewater Facilities | 741 | ||
| 14 Chlorine Dioxide | 742 | ||
| Introduction | 742 | ||
| Historical Background | 742 | ||
| European Practice | 743 | ||
| Other Uses | 744 | ||
| Chemical and Biologic Properties | 745 | ||
| Chemical Properties | 745 | ||
| Chemistry in Potable Water Treatment | 746 | ||
| Selectivity as an Oxidant | 747 | ||
| Germicidal Efficiency | 747 | ||
| Inactivation of Viruses and Bacteria | 748 | ||
| Encysted Parasites | 753 | ||
| Equipment and Generation | 754 | ||
| Purity | 755 | ||
| Commercial Generation Methods and Chemistry | 755 | ||
| Acid–Chlorite Solution | 756 | ||
| Chlorine Solution–Chlorite Solution | 759 | ||
| Three-Chemical Systems (D. A. Gates, pers. comm.) | 760 | ||
| Chlorine Gas–Chlorite Solution | 761 | ||
| Chlorine Gas–Solid Chlorite | 762 | ||
| Electrochemical | 762 | ||
| Chlorate-Based Systems | 764 | ||
| Chemical Feed Design Considerations | 764 | ||
| Batch Tank | 765 | ||
| Storage | 765 | ||
| Purity Specification | 765 | ||
| Bench-Scale Generation of ClO(2) | 766 | ||
| Potassium Persulfate–Chlorite Solution | 766 | ||
| Sulfuric Acid–Chlorite Solution | 767 | ||
| Sodium Hypochlorite–Hydrochloric Acid–Chlorite Solution | 767 | ||
| Chlorine Gas–Solid Chlorite | 768 | ||
| Use in Drinking Water and Wastewater Disinfection | 769 | ||
| Drinking Water Primary Disinfection Application Points | 769 | ||
| Contactor Design Criteria | 770 | ||
| Diffusers and Injectors | 770 | ||
| Exposure to Sunlight | 770 | ||
| DBPs | 771 | ||
| Chlorite | 771 | ||
| Chlorate | 773 | ||
| THMs and HAAs | 776 | ||
| Secondary Disinfection | 776 | ||
| Objectionable Taste and Odor Formation | 776 | ||
| Disinfection of Wastewater Effluent | 777 | ||
| Combined Sewer Overflow (CSO) | 777 | ||
| Other Disinfection Applications | 778 | ||
| Medical Devices | 778 | ||
| Food Processing | 778 | ||
| Other Pathogens | 779 | ||
| Other Uses for Chlorine Dioxide in Water Treatment | 780 | ||
| Taste and Odor Control | 780 | ||
| Iron and Manganese Oxidation | 781 | ||
| Algae Growth Control | 782 | ||
| Zebra Mussels | 782 | ||
| DBP Control | 782 | ||
| Analytic Methods for Chlorine Dioxide and its Oxychlorine By-Products | 782 | ||
| Iodometry | 784 | ||
| Amperometric Titration Methods | 785 | ||
| Standard Methods 4500-ClO(2)-C, Amperometric Method I | 785 | ||
| Standard Methods 4500-ClO(2)-E, Amperometric Method II | 786 | ||
| Amperometric Titration Equivalence Point | 786 | ||
| DPD Method | 789 | ||
| LGB | 790 | ||
| IC Methods | 791 | ||
| Other Analytic Methods | 791 | ||
| Spectrophotometry | 791 | ||
| Flow Injection Analysis (FIA) | 792 | ||
| Other Colorimetric Methods for Chlorine Dioxide Analysis | 793 | ||
| Health and Safety | 794 | ||
| Chlorine Dioxide | 794 | ||
| Sodium Chlorite | 794 | ||
| Chlorine | 795 | ||
| Toxicity | 795 | ||
| Workplace Monitoring | 795 | ||
| Regulatory Issues | 796 | ||
| Drinking Water Regulations for Disinfection | 796 | ||
| SWTR | 796 | ||
| LT2ESWTR | 796 | ||
| Chlorine Dioxide Residual Limits | 796 | ||
| Related Disinfection By-Products | 797 | ||
| Chlorite | 797 | ||
| Chlorate | 797 | ||
| ClO(2) Use to Meet Wastewater Treatment Plant Regulatory Requirements | 797 | ||
| Summary | 797 | ||
| Advantages of Chlorine Dioxide | 798 | ||
| Disadvantages of Chlorine Dioxide | 798 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 798 | ||
| References | 799 | ||
| 15 Ozone | 809 | ||
| Introduction | 809 | ||
| History and Application | 809 | ||
| Chemical Properties | 810 | ||
| Physical Properties | 810 | ||
| Solubility of Ozone | 810 | ||
| Ozone Reaction Pathways | 811 | ||
| Ozone Demand | 813 | ||
| Dissolved Ozone Decay | 814 | ||
| Inorganic Compound Treatment | 815 | ||
| Iron and Manganese | 815 | ||
| Sulfides | 817 | ||
| Chlorine, Chlorine Dioxide, and Monochloramine | 818 | ||
| Organic Compounds | 819 | ||
| Taste- and Odor-Causing Compounds | 819 | ||
| Control of Chlorination By-Products | 821 | ||
| TOC Oxidation | 822 | ||
| Biological Filtration | 822 | ||
| Removal of Particulates | 823 | ||
| Color Removal | 824 | ||
| Increase in UV Transmittance at 254 nm (UVT(254)) | 824 | ||
| SOCs | 825 | ||
| EDC and PPCP Treatment | 826 | ||
| Cyanotoxins | 827 | ||
| Treatment of Biological Solids in Wastewater | 828 | ||
| Disinfection | 829 | ||
| Use in Drinking Water | 829 | ||
| Use in Wastewater | 832 | ||
| Ozone DBPs | 834 | ||
| Bromate Control | 835 | ||
| Aldehydes, Carboxylic Acids, and Ketones | 837 | ||
| Use in Water and Wastewater Treatment | 837 | ||
| Potable Water Installations | 838 | ||
| Wastewater Installations | 839 | ||
| Equipment and Generation | 840 | ||
| Theory of O(3) Generation | 841 | ||
| Gas Source | 842 | ||
| Generation | 854 | ||
| Transfer | 858 | ||
| Contactors | 863 | ||
| Destruction Equipment | 868 | ||
| Ancillary Equipment | 871 | ||
| Cost Studies | 873 | ||
| Process Calculations | 874 | ||
| Gas Flow | 874 | ||
| Ozone Production | 876 | ||
| Ozone Transfer Efficiency | 876 | ||
| Applied Ozone Dose | 877 | ||
| Transferred Ozone Dose | 877 | ||
| Specific Energy | 877 | ||
| Quench Chemicals | 878 | ||
| Analytical Methods | 878 | ||
| Ozone Concentration in Gas | 879 | ||
| Measuring Dissolved Ozone Residual in Water | 881 | ||
| Health and Safety | 884 | ||
| Regulatory Issues | 885 | ||
| References | 886 | ||
| 16 Bromine, Bromine Chloride, BCDMH, and Iodine | 890 | ||
| Bromine (Br(2)) | 890 | ||
| Physical and Chemical Properties | 890 | ||
| Occurrence | 891 | ||
| Bromine Production | 891 | ||
| Chemistry of Bromine in Water and Wastewater Treatment | 893 | ||
| Reactions with Chlorine | 894 | ||
| Use of Bromine in Water Treatment Processes | 894 | ||
| Potable Water | 894 | ||
| Wastewater | 895 | ||
| Cooling Water | 896 | ||
| Swimming Pools | 896 | ||
| Br(2) Facility Design | 896 | ||
| Bromides: On-Site Generation of Br(2) | 897 | ||
| System Description | 897 | ||
| Current U.S. Practices | 899 | ||
| Comparison with Other Methods | 899 | ||
| Bromine Chloride (BrCl) | 900 | ||
| Physical and Chemical Properties | 900 | ||
| Preparation of Bromine Chloride | 901 | ||
| Chemistry of Bromine Chloride in Water | 902 | ||
| Design of Bromine Chloride Facilities | 903 | ||
| Comparison with Advantages of Other Methods | 907 | ||
| BCDMH | 908 | ||
| Physical and Chemical Properties | 908 | ||
| Application and Production | 908 | ||
| Chemistry of BCDMH in Water and Wastewater | 908 | ||
| Application of BCDMH in Wastewater | 909 | ||
| Comparison with Chlorination | 909 | ||
| Germicidal Efficiency (Br(2) and BrCl) | 911 | ||
| Bromo-Organic Compounds | 913 | ||
| Measurement of Bromine Residuals | 914 | ||
| Amperometric Method | 915 | ||
| DPD Differentiation Method | 915 | ||
| Effect of Seawater Chlorination | 916 | ||
| Toxicity of Bromine Residuals | 916 | ||
| Health and Safety Aspects of Bromine Compounds | 916 | ||
| Regulatory Issues | 917 | ||
| Iodine (I(2)) | 917 | ||
| Physical and Chemical Characteristics | 917 | ||
| Occurrence and Production | 918 | ||
| Production from Chile Saltpeter | 918 | ||
| Production from Brine | 919 | ||
| Applications | 919 | ||
| Uses in Water Treatment | 920 | ||
| Chemistry of Iodination | 921 | ||
| Germicidal Efficiency | 924 | ||
| Limitations of Iodination | 925 | ||
| Comparison with Chlorination | 926 | ||
| Iodination Facility | 926 | ||
| Determination of Iodine Residuals | 928 | ||
| Toxicity of Iodine Residuals | 928 | ||
| Health and Safety Aspects of Iodine | 928 | ||
| Regulatory Issues | 929 | ||
| Summary | 929 | ||
| Bromine | 929 | ||
| Bromine Chloride | 930 | ||
| BCDMH | 930 | ||
| Iodine | 931 | ||
| References | 931 | ||
| 17 Ultraviolet Light | 935 | ||
| Introduction | 935 | ||
| Wastewater Applications in Europe | 935 | ||
| UV Applications in North America | 936 | ||
| Drinking Water Applications in the United States | 938 | ||
| Chemical and Biological Properties | 939 | ||
| UV Light | 939 | ||
| Microbial Inactivation Mechanisms | 940 | ||
| Microbial UV Sensitivity | 941 | ||
| Microbial Repair | 941 | ||
| UV Dose | 944 | ||
| Guidelines | 946 | ||
| USEPA's Ultraviolet Disinfection Guidance Manual | 946 | ||
| NWRI/AwwaRF's Ultraviolet Disinfection Guidelines for Drinking Water and Water Reuse | 949 | ||
| USEPA's Design Manual for Municipal Wastewater Disinfection | 950 | ||
| UV Equipment | 952 | ||
| UV Lamps | 952 | ||
| UV Reactors | 963 | ||
| Ballasts | 966 | ||
| Lamp Sleeves | 967 | ||
| UV Sensors | 968 | ||
| Cleaning Systems | 969 | ||
| Online UVT Monitors | 970 | ||
| Temperature Sensors/Water Level Probes | 970 | ||
| Water Quality Issues | 971 | ||
| UV Transmittance | 971 | ||
| Particles/Suspended Solids | 971 | ||
| Fouling | 973 | ||
| UV System Sizing Tools | 974 | ||
| UV System Validation | 974 | ||
| Nonbiological, Mathematical-Based Modeling | 997 | ||
| Emerging Methods | 1001 | ||
| Operation and Maintenance Activities | 1003 | ||
| Maintenance Activities | 1003 | ||
| Operational Issues | 1006 | ||
| Troubleshooting Strategies | 1007 | ||
| Process Control Modifications | 1007 | ||
| Electrical System Modifications | 1007 | ||
| Mechanical System Modifications | 1008 | ||
| Health and Safety for Water And Wastewater UV Systems | 1008 | ||
| General | 1008 | ||
| UV Light Exposure | 1009 | ||
| Perform a UV Safety Audit | 1010 | ||
| Acute Health Effects of UV Exposure | 1010 | ||
| Chronic Health Effects of UV Exposure | 1011 | ||
| Engineering Controls | 1011 | ||
| Administrative Controls | 1011 | ||
| Personal Protection | 1011 | ||
| References | 1012 | ||
| 18 Advanced Oxidation Processes | 1018 | ||
| Introduction | 1018 | ||
| Historical Perspective | 1018 | ||
| Types of AOPs | 1019 | ||
| Chemistry of AOPs | 1019 | ||
| Ozone Decomposition Initiated by Hydroxide | 1020 | ||
| O(3)/H(2)O(2) | 1021 | ||
| O(3)/UV | 1021 | ||
| H(2)O(2)/UV | 1021 | ||
| Fe(II)/H(2)O(2) (Fenton Reaction) | 1022 | ||
| Fe(II)/H(2)O(2)/UV (Photo-Fenton Reaction) | 1022 | ||
| TiO(2)/UV | 1023 | ||
| TiO(2)/H(2)O(2)/UV | 1023 | ||
| Uses in Drinking Water and Wastewater Treatment | 1024 | ||
| Oxidation of VOCs | 1024 | ||
| Oxidation of Pesticides | 1027 | ||
| Oxidation of Taste and Odor Compounds | 1030 | ||
| Oxidation of Disinfection By-Product (DBP) Precursors | 1031 | ||
| Factors Affecting System Performance | 1032 | ||
| O(3)/H(2)O(2) | 1032 | ||
| O(3)/UV | 1033 | ||
| H(2)O(2)/UV | 1034 | ||
| Fenton and Photo-Fenton Reactions | 1034 | ||
| TiO(2)/UV | 1035 | ||
| Regulations | 1036 | ||
| Equipment and Generation | 1037 | ||
| References | 1039 | ||
| Appendix | 1045 | ||
| Index | 1051 |